The earliest evidence of human habitation comes from excavations that have been carried out in some of the numerous caves in the region.  Findings of particular note that indicate human presence during the Neolithic Period have emerged from work carried out at the caves of Gerani, Melidoni, and S(f)endoni.

The Gerani Cave (7 km West of Rethymnon) was discovered by accident in 1969 by workmen building the new National Highway.  Archaeological research led by Ioannis Tzedakis revealed that the site was inhabited during late Neolithic times.  Both human and animal remains were found – indicating that the site was used for worship and for burial.  Neolithic artifacts uncovered from the site include stone figurines, tools made from stone and bone, stone pottery, jewelry, and spear shafts.

Sfendoni Cave in Zoniana Excavations at the Melidoni Cave (5 km North East of Perama) and the S(f)endoni Cave (7 km West of Anogia) have uncovered evidence of human habitation that dates back to the early Neolithic times.

Some of the findings from caves in the region may be seen on display in the Archaeological Museum of Rethymnon.

Evidence of human habitation dating back to the Early Minoan Period (2600-2000 BC) has been uncovered from numerous caves and sites throughout the Rethymnon Prefecture.  Key sites of note providing valuable information about life during this era include the S(f)endoni Cave, the settlement of Pyrgi on the site of ancient Eleftherna and the settlements of Hamalevri and Apodoulo.

Patsos CaveFindings from the complex of buildings at Monasteraki (in the Amari valley, 38 km South of Rethymnon), the settlements of Pera Galinous and Stavromenous and the Patsos Cave date back to the Middle-Minoan Period (2000-1600 BC).  The settlement at Monasteraki is believed to have been a palace created in approximately 2000 BC and destroyed in 1700 BC, either by earthquake or fire; thus suffering the same fate as the First Palaces of Knossos, Festos, Malia and Zakros.

There are a number of sites in the region indicating the human presence during the Late-Minoan Period (1600-1100 BC).  These include the settlement of Zominthos (Anogia), the place of worship at Fantaxospiliara (Prinos) and the cemetery at Armeni (10 km South of Rethymnon).  Excavation work carried out in the Mastabas district of Rethymnon indicates that the town itself has also been inhabited since Late Minoan times.  Archaeologists have uncovered a hewn grave typical of the period along with tomb furnishings.

Some of the findings from these sites are on display in the Archaeological Museum in Rethymnon.

Modern-day Rethymnon has retained the ancient motif depicting two leaping dolphins as a symbol of the town.

ElefthernaDuring the Hellenistic period (330 – 69 BC) Rithymna’s significance as a city-state apparently started to wane, probably due in part to the emergence of neighboring centers in the region.  However, Rithymna still remained important enough to be mentioned by writers of the period.  The writer Claudius Aelianos (3rd Century BC) describes the temple of Rokkaia Artemis on Palaiokastro hill, Claudius Prolemos (2nd Century BC) and Plinios (1st Century BC) also describe the town.

The decline that had started during the Hellenistic period continued during the Roman period (69 BC – 395 AD).  By the end of the Roman period, Rithymna was a small and insignificant village, being completely superseded by the flourishing centers of Eleftherna, Lappa, Sivritos and Axos.

During the First Byzantine period (395-824), Rethymnon continued to exist as a small village as part of the Eastern Roman Empire.  Axos and Eleftherna became the religious centers of the area as Christianity expanded across the island.  There is little information about Rethymnon during this time, however, some tombstones from the period have been discovered and are on display in the Rethymnon Archaeological Museum.

The Arabs conquered the island in 824 and ruled until 961.  There is little historical evidence about the impact of the Arab rule on the region, however, some Arab coins have been found in the area of the village of Giannoudi (4 km South-East of Rethymnon).  It is also believed that it was during this period that the ancient sites of Sybritos and Lappa were destroyed.

Crete was liberated from the Arabs by Nikoforos Foka in 961.  Liberation was followed by Crete’s reintegration into the Byzantine Empire.  It is during the Second Byzantine Period (961-1204) that a settlement by the harbor was first established.  By the time the Venetians first arrived in 1204 this settlement had been fortified, evidence for this comes from the description of Byzantine fortifications in a Venetian document of 1229.  However, no physical evidence of the original Byzantine fortifications remains.

In 1204 Byzantium handed over Crete to Boniface of Monferrato of the Fourth Crusade.  Boniface of Monferrato then sold Crete to the Venetians for 230 kilos of silver.  However, the Venetians were initially slow to establish themselves on the island.  In 1206 the Genoese pirate Enrico Pescatore invaded Crete and it was not until 1210 that the Venetians regained control.

 It was during the Venetian occupation that Rethymnon re-emerged as a settlement of note.  The Venetians constructed impressive fortifications in the town – most notably the Fortezza, built distinctive monuments such as the Rimondi Fountain and the Loggia, and developed the harbor.  Rethymnon became an important trading center for the export of wine and oil from the region.  This period also marks a time of cultural and artistic Renaissance for the town.  Local scholars such as Markos Mousouros, Zacharias Kalliergis, and the Vergikios brothers were internationally revered.  Poets such as Hortatzis, Troilus and Marinos Tzane Bounialis made valuable contributions to Cretan literature, and painters such as Emmanuel Lambardos and Emmanuel Bounialis were renowned as exponents of the Cretan School in Renaissance art.

The first 150 years of Venetian rule were turbulent times, marked by several uprisings by local inhabitants against the Venetian conquerors.  However, despite local resistance, the Venetians managed to implement a number of administrative changes to the region.  In the second administrative division of Crete (14th Century), Rethymnon was made capital of one of the 4 provinces.  In 1307 it became the seat of the governor, indicating the growing importance of the town.  The port also became more important as a center for international trade due to its direct link with Constantinople.

After the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453,  Crete became increasingly vulnerable to raids from the East.  In 1538 Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa (pirate/Turkish admiral) attacked the North coast of Crete.  This attack brought home the need to fortify Rethymnon.  One of the greatest architects of the age – Michele Sanmicheli – was brought to Rethymnon for this purpose.  During the period of 1540-1570 fortification work began.  Unfortunately, the only remaining part of the original fortifications to be seen today is the Guora Gate in the center of town.

The initial fortifications were unable to withstand the continuing onslaughts from the Turks.  In 1571 the pirate Ulutz Ali launched a devastating raid on Rethymnon and the Turkish army burned down half the houses in town.  The Venetians responded to this by starting work on the construction of the imposing Fortezza, the first stone being laid in 1573.  Over the years, however, the walls of the Fortezza became weakened by successive Turkish raids.  In 1646 during the fifth Venetian-Turkish war, the troops of Huseyin Pas besieged the city for 22 days.  The local population and Venetian soldiers sought refuge in the Fortezza but were finally forced to negotiate a surrender to the Turks on November 13th.

The period of the Turkish occupation is seen as one of the darkest times in Crete’s history.  Rethymnon continued to be an important administrative center under the Turks; however, it was also a hotbed of local resistance.  The Turks imposed crippling taxes on the townspeople, re-investing little in the development of the town.  Muslims became dominant, and those Christians who resisted conversion to Islam suffered severe repression.

Architecturally, the image of the town changed completely.  Many churches were destroyed, with mosques and minarets been erected in their place.  The Turks also made modifications to the existing Venetian houses – most notably in the construction of sachnisia, or wooden balconies, projecting from the buildings.  The distinctive mix of Venetian and Turkish architecture in the ‘old town’ of Rethymnon is still greatly in evidence today.

During the Turkish occupation, there were numerous uprisings by local inhabitants.  One of the first major rebellions, centered in Sfakia, took place in 1770.  This rebellion failed, however, it did pave the way for an almost constant series of successive revolutions.  By the 19th century, the Turkish occupiers were under serious pressure from local inhabitants, both on Crete and on the Greek mainland.  In 1821 the Greek War of Independence broke out.  Despite the fierce fighting Crete failed to gain its freedom – instead, the island was ceded by the Turks to the Egyptian Pasha Mehmet Ali (1830-1841).  After the Turks regained control of the island in 1841 Cretans were engaged in continual warfare in favor of union with the rest of Greece.

As with previous rebellions, the Great Cretan Revolution (1866-1869) failed to gain freedom for the Cretans.  Nevertheless, this uprising drew international attention to the plight of the Cretans.  The dramatic culmination to the siege of the Arkadi Monastery (18 km South-East of Rethymnon) in 1866 attracted worldwide sympathy.  Several hundred local inhabitants barricaded themselves into ammunition storerooms and then chose to blow themselves up, rather than surrender to the Turks.

The Turkish period of occupation finally ended with the arrival of the Great Powers in 1897.  The island was occupied by an international force, with the island being divided into regions controlled by the British, French, Russians and Italians.

In 1897 Russian troops arrived in Rethymnon as part of the settlement of the ‘Great Powers’ which gave autonomy to Crete.  In 1898 Prince George arrived at Chania to take office as High Commissioner.  During this time preparations began in order to establish Crete as an autonomous state with its own constitution and government.  Autonomy brought Rethymnon several benefits, resulting in the revival of economic and intellectual activity within the town.  Nevertheless, unification with the rest of Greece remained an ultimate goal for many of the inhabitants.

Elefterias Venizelos – Rethymnon.bizThere were several attempts by Crete to attain unity with Greece.  A key protagonist in this respect was Eleftherios Venizelos, Prince George’s Justice Minister and a representative of the Cretan Assembly.  As a result of Prince George’s implacable opposition to unification, Eleftherios Venizelos convened a revolutionary assembly in Therisos in 1905, summoning the Cretans to take up arms.  Although the rebellion was subsequently crushed, the strength of local support resulted in the resignation of Prince George and the appointment of a new Governor.  Despite the appointment of a new Governor, Cretans continued to press for unification with Greece.  In 1908 the Cretan assembly unilaterally declared unity with Greece.  However, the Greek government, fearful of antagonizing the Great Powers, rejected this declaration.  It was not until the outbreak of the first Balkan War in 1912 that Cretan representatives were allowed in the Greek parliament.  Crete was formally recognized as part of the Greek state at the end of the Balkan War in 1913 by the Treaty of Bucharest.

After WWI the Greek army landed at Smyrna (now Izmir) in Turkey.  This started the Asia Minor War, which ended in 1923 with the Treaty of Lausanne.  Part of the treaty called for the enforced exchange of populations: almost 400,000 Turks living in Greece were moved back to Turkey whilst almost 1.5 million Greeks left Turkey.  On Crete, the entire population of 30,000 Turks left the island – leaving their houses to a similar number of incoming Greek refugees.

Hellenic Australian Memorial – During WWII Rethymnon was one of the major theatres of war in the Battle of Crete (1941).  After intense fighting the German troops managed to capture the airfield of Maleme (16 km West of Chania), effectively ending the battle.  Despite fierce resistance, the German occupying forces managed to settle in Rethymnon, taking control of all aspects of daily life.  During the German occupation, Rethymnon became a center for local partisan activity.  Many townspeople and villagers risked their lives by hiding and helping allied soldiers who had been stranded on the island after the Battle of Crete.  The local monasteries also played an important role in the resistance, in particular, Preveli Monastery on the South coast.  Resistance activities resulted in savage reprisals by the occupying forces; in a number of villages the entire male population was massacred by the Germans and buildings were razed to the ground.

After WWII, it took some time for Rethymnon to recover its former prosperity.  The first tourists started to arrive in the late ’50s and early ’60s; this industry has continued to grow year on year.  Over recent decades Rethymnon’s importance as a commercial and agricultural center has also increased: agricultural products, providing valuable revenue for the region include olives, wine, oranges, and avocados.

Intellectual activity in Rethymnon has continued to develop: in 1973 the University of Crete was established with a campus in Rethymnon; other campuses were built in Heraklion and Chania.  In 1998 a completely new campus was built in the village of Gallou, 3 km South-West of Rethymnon.  This campus brought together the schools of Philosophy, Education and Social Sciences.  The Rethymnon campus is now the main seat of the University of Crete.

Modern-day Rethymnon is a fascinating mix of old and new.  It is a thriving intellectual and commercial center, the inhabitants being extremely receptive to all the latest technological advances.  Nevertheless, local people retain a deep sense of pride in their history, thus ensuring that Rethymnon’s unique heritage is preserved for generations to come.